Physical modeling of spikes during the volcanic tsunami generation

Tsunamis generated by underwater volcanic eruptions are physically modeled in a large three-dimensional wave basin. A unique pneumatic tsunami generator (VTG) was deployed at the bottom of basin to generate tsunamis with repeatable source parameters under controlled physical conditions. The Froude number defined VTG eruption velocity and water depth allows model real-world events from slow mud-volcanoes explosive eruptions. generates radial N-waves prescribed vertical stroke motions Initial surfaces reconstructed for daylighting scenarios. Smooth dome shapes observed during submarine generation, which is followed trough formation source. concentric spike specific range depths, superposition an inward propagating circular bore on top generator. can be clustered different ranges dimensionless parameter. With increasing parameter, pattern transitions through three distinct categories: smooth spike, rough splash spike. height tip dependent parameters. maximum values regime among all tested experimental